Home Schooling, Private Schools, and Charter Schools
This chapter considers two private-sector alternatives and one public-sector alternative
to schooling in a public or separate school operating in the public sector.
Parents may choose to educate their children themselves at home.
The term “private school” is used here to refer to any school
operating in the private sector.
Private schools are sometimes called independent schools.
Finally, charter schools, although operating in the public sector, enjoy a level
of independence from governmental control that makes them resemble private schools.
Although home schooling involves the removal of the child from the
public schools, it does not result in the placement of the child in an
institutional setting.
Instead the child is educated at home, usually by one or both parents.
Parents who teach their children at home take advantage of the
“efficient instruction elsewhere” clauses or special
home–schooling clauses found in provincial school legislation.
Normally, an educator acting on behalf of the province or a local school
board determines whether the instruction is efficient.
If it is not, the children can be forced to return to the public schools if
they are within the age of compulsory attendance.
In contrast to private schooling, most home schooling takes place at the
lower grade levels.
Many parents who teach their children at home while they are at the
elementary level find that their homes lack the specialized facilities
available in secondary schools for science and technology teaching.
Most parents lack sufficient knowledge of advanced subject specialties
to provide adequate high school instruction.
Another problem faced by home schoolers, not exclusively at the
secondary level, is the lack of opportunity for the child to socialize with
children of the same age.
Priesnitz (14–15) lists 27 reasons given by parents for
schooling their children at home.
Needless to say, there is considerable variation.
Dissatisfaction with the public schools is a common theme, but some
parents find them too rigid and others too flexible, some too
secular and others too Christian.
Some cite not enough discipline in public schools and others
too much.
Some parents want their children to avoid sex education, and others,
allergenic substances.
Some see the public schools as condoning the use of drugs and do not
wish to expose their children to this temptation.
Some parents use travel as a teaching tool while home schooling, a
method not as readily available to the public schools.
In the area of home schooling, Alberta is exceptional in providing some money
to parents to reimburse them for expenses incurred in home schooling their
children.
Parents who home school their children must register with a public-sector school
board or private school and the school will receive an amount of money determined
by regulation for each home-schooled child that it supervises.
Under section 7 of the regulation (Home Education Regulation), the associate
board or associate private school, as they are called, must offer the parents at least
one-half of the money that it receives for their child.
The parents are required to submit receipts to justify their expenditures.
The associate school board or associate private school is required to provide the
home-schooling parent with program evaluation, assistance, advice, and the
opportunity for the child to write provincial achievement examinations.
British Columbia is one of a few provinces with specific legislative
provisions for home schooling
(School Act (British Columbia) and “School Regulation” (British Columbia)).
Division 4 of Part 2 of the
School Act,
entitled “Home Education” enables parents to educate their
children at home but requires that they register the children with a
school in their public school district, a private–sector school, or a
regional correspondence school.
A public school with registered home–schooled children is required to
provide these children with evaluation and assessment services and
with the loan of educational resource materials on the same basis as
students being educated at the school.
Private schools, because they operate in the private sector, have a
number of distinguishing characteristics.
They generally charge tuition and can select their students.
They do not have a legal obligation to provide education to all resident
children as do the public schools.
Depending on the province and type of school, they may be able to
employ staff that do not hold teaching certificates.
On the average, private schools are smaller than public schools.
In Canada at the elementary and secondary levels, about five percent of
all students are in private schools.
The percentage tends to be higher in provinces that are wealthy, that
do not have separate school systems, and that subsidize
private schools.
The following classification of private schools is an unofficial,
rough-and-ready one, but it is useful.
The various types are not mutually exclusive; it is possible for
a school to be both elite and denominational, for example.
Not all schools fit the system well.
Nursery schools and kindergartens offer instruction to preschool
children.
In provinces with senior kindergartens, junior kindergartens, or both,
many private kindergartens and nursery schools take children at an
earlier age than the public system.
In some provinces these schools are treated as part of the social services
system rather than the educational system.
Certainly there is an overlap among programs for preschool children,
including daycare, nursery schools, and kindergartens.
Some schools are based on a single philosophy or method of education.
These include Waldorf schools based on the philosophy of Rudolf Steiner
and nursery schools that follow the teachings of Maria Montessori.
If the philosophy is a religious one, the school may be classified as
religious or denominational.
Specialty schools offer a regular academic program with extra emphasis
on an academic or non-academic subject.
There are specialty schools in the plastic and performing arts, for
example.
There are schools that specialize in ballet.
Several provinces have schools with an outdoor or wilderness
component that encourages resourcefulness and self-reliance in
students.
Not all specialty schools are private.
Religious or denominational schools come in a variety of distinct types,
not always Christian.
There are Roman Catholic or just Catholic schools in many provinces,
including some provinces with Roman Catholic separate schools, but
particularly in those without.
In the United States these are called parochial schools.
Christian schools representing several denominations, usually
fundamentalist Protestant, have increased greatly in number in recent
years.
Although Roman Catholicism is a Christian denomination, the term
“Christian school” is usually reserved for fundamentalist Protestant
schools.
Other denominations, including the Anglicans and the United Church,
have private schools, some of which would be regarded as elite.
Non-Christian religious schools include Jewish or Hebrew schools, of
which Quebec has a large number, and Islamic schools.
The traditional view of a private school is that of an elite
school.
Many of these schools have traditions and a history dating back
many decades.
They are frequently residential and usually expensive.
Most were single-sex schools, but in recent years many have become
coeducational.
Gossage's book,
A Question of Privilege: Canada's Independent Schools,
is a catalog of these schools in Canada.
Military schools at the secondary level are much more common in the
United States than in Canada.
They are usually residential and sometimes
all male.
Their curriculum includes academic subjects combined with military
training, both offered in an atmosphere of military discipline.
Some of these could be classified as elite.
Catch-up schools take children who are having difficulty in public
schools and provide remedial help with a view to re-inserting them into
the public school system.
They tend to emphasize the diagnosis of learning difficulties followed by
tailor-made programs and tutoring.
In Quebec, they are known as “rattrapage” schools.
The category of catch-up schools overlaps with that of
special–education schools.
Special–education schools in the private sector are becoming less
common with the elimination of pupil exclusion clauses in provincial
school legislation.
Special–education schools can be recognized by words such as
“teaching”, “learning”,
or “remedial” in their names.
At one time they were the only alternative available to many parents
with handicapped children.
In Quebec and Alberta, schools offering education for handicapped
children form a defined category of private school eligible for grants
from the province.
Other types of private schools include heritage language and French
immersion schools.
The latter type is disappearing as the public sector expands its
immersion programs.
A heritage language is a language associated with one's ancestry or
culture such as Ukrainian, Greek, Italian, or German.
English and French, being official languages, are excluded from this
category.
Some Canadian provinces have private schools that cater to foreign
students who wish to finish secondary school here to make it easier for
them to enter Canadian universities.
Finally there are private schools that are residential and provide
around-the-clock supervision of children but which do not otherwise
seem to differ much from public schools.
Private schools have always been controversial, particularly among
public school employees and supporters.
To a limited extent they represent a threat to the public schools
in that they take pupils who would otherwise be in public
schools.
This decreases the number of pupils in the public
system and reduces the demand for public school teachers.
Paradoxically, this decrease in pupils increases measures of wealth in
the public system since property assessment and personal income per
pupil go up as the number of pupils goes down.
Private school teachers are not required to be members of provincial
teacher organizations.
Hence these organizations represent public-sector teachers almost
exclusively and tend to react negatively to private schools.
The debate over private schools heats up considerably when the
question of funding them publicly is raised.
Many people who take a live-and-let-live attitude to the existence of
private schools react much more negatively to the idea of subsidizing
them with public money.
The following two subsections deal with the arguments for and against
providing public money for private schools.
Perhaps the most frequent argument in support of the existence of
private schools is the claimed right of parents to exercise choice in
something as important to the family as educating children.
Article 26(3) of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
which was proclaimed by the General Assembly of the United
Nations and signed by Canada, is frequently quoted in support of this
argument.
It simply requires that “Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of
education that shall be given to their children.” (United Nations, 3).
When parents exercise their right to send their children to private
schools, they are usually required to pay tuition while they continue to
pay taxes to support the public system.
This gives rise to the double payment argument.
When parents remove their children from the public system, they ease
the burden on that system.
They should not have to financially support a system they are not
utilizing and especially not while they are paying tuition to private
schools for their children's education.
A third argument for private schools centers on the disadvantages
associated with the monopolistic provision of any good or service.
When public schools have a monopoly on education, the lack of
competition encourages the provision of the service in a manner more in
line with bureaucratic imperatives than with public preferences.
Monopolies are thought to be associated with inefficiency and
featherbedding.
A closely related argument is that private schools are closer to the
market and are therefore better able to detect shifts in public
preferences, to respond to these shifts, and therefore to act as a model
for the public schools.
Certainly the private schools must satisfy the market or at least a small
segment of it.
The alternative is to lose clients to the publicly funded system, a system
that parents will find much less expensive.
A final argument that is especially relevant to Canada is the
non-discrimination argument with respect to religion.
Three of the ten provinces have statutory arrangements for Roman
Catholic denominational schools in some form within the publicly
controlled and funded system.
Other Christian denominations and non-Christian religions assert that
if you do it for the Roman Catholics you must do it for them
as well.
As is apparent from chapter 3, this argument has no legal basis but
it may have a moral one.
The most frequently cited argument in opposition to the existence of
private schools is that of equality of educational opportunity.
Correctly or incorrectly, private schools are seen as creating a two-tier
social system with the socially and economically better-off families
sending their children to elite private schools where they receive
education in quality and quantity not available to those forced to spend
their formative years in public schools.
The private school crowd receives a disproportionate share of the
opportunities to succeed in life through ascription rather
than merit.
The empirical evidence that exists on this suggests that this argument
is not valid for private schools taken as a whole.
The social cohesion argument is closely related to equality of
opportunity.
Students in the elite private schools may never have to mix with the
masses.
They will never learn to understand the point of view of the common
person.
Private and public school education may differ to the point where the
two groups develop antagonistic and incompatible values.
In extreme cases, they may have trouble communicating with each
other.
Ardent supporters of the public system have always had serious
concerns about the ways in which private schools select their
students—something public schools cannot do.
There is certainly financial selection based on the ability and
willingness of the parents to pay private school tuition, although those
who send their children to private schools are frequently not very
well-off.
There may also be selection—both self-selection and school-imposed
selection—based on religion or ideology in cases where the school
espouses a certain position in this regard.
Private schools may refuse to accept or may expel students who are
academically inferior or who are behaviour problems.
Public schools have somewhat more difficulty in expelling students and
much more difficulty in refusing them admission in the first place.
A final argument centers around the use of “voice”
versus “exit” in bringing about educational reform.
Private schools are a form of exit for persons who are disaffected
with the public system.
The parents who choose to exit are likely to be those most concerned
and informed about educational quality.
When they leave the public system, their voices are lost to the
cause of reform in the public system.
According to this argument parents must be encouraged or even
compelled to support the public system to ensure that the public
system has the benefit of informed public input.
Voucher financing of education has been debated on and off for several
decades, often with considerable vigour.
It involves giving parents a voucher or ticket for education that they
can use to send their children to any school, public or private.
The vouchers would be issued by a government--a province or school
board in Canada--and would be redeemed from the school for money by
the issuing authority.
A voucher could pay all or only part of the cost of educating
a child.
The idea is to establish a free market for education in which schools
would succeed or fail according to their popularity with consumers.
Any system that combines public finance with private supply can be
seen as a voucher system, and that includes any public subsidization of
private schools.
Canadian provincial medicare systems form a voucher system for the
finance of health services, of which some are supplied publicly and some
privately.
Most Canadian hospitals are public institutions, but doctors in private
practice are self-employed entrepreneurs.
A medicare card is a voucher.
All that a doctor needs to have to claim reimbursement for services
performed is the patient's name and medicare number.
We have noted, though, that health services are qualitatively different
from education.
The only important lesson for educators to be learned from medicare
systems is that a voucher system for education would be
administratively feasible.
The implementation of a voucher system would place educational
services in the free market and give consumers a choice.
We can make some tentative judgments about what consumers would
look for based on the current system and on a limited voucher
experiment conducted in the United States in the early 1970s.
This experiment was conducted in Alum Rock in California and involved
only one public school district, which developed a series of specialized
mini-schools distinguished by curriculum.
Bridge (1978) reports findings on the exercise of choice by parents in
the Alum Rock experiment.
Parents consistently identified the nearness of the school to the home as
the most important criterion for choosing a school.
This finding was confirmed by parental choice behaviour.
The limited range of choices prevented parents from choosing the sorts
of things sometimes looked for in private schools, a Christian
curriculum for example, but the shocking finding for educators was the
apparent irrelevance of the major criterion to teaching and learning.
Private school experience in Canada suggests another consistently
important element looked for by parents.
That is the length of the school day or, more precisely, the length of the
day during which the children are supervised by the school.
Working parents often see residential schools and private schools with
extended school days as a convenient means of having children cared for
while they are on the job.
In an increasing number of families, both parents are in the labour
force, and for them the conventional school day is too short.
Single parent families are also common, and many single parents
must work outside the home, strengthening the need for an extended
school day.
An important difference between public and private schools is the
greater responsiveness or vulnerability, depending on your position, of
private schools to market forces.
Public schools do not normally provide an extended school day because
they are not funded for it and they cannot legally accept the money that
many parents are willing and able to pay for the service.
For public schools operating under the current system, there is no real
possibility of catering to the tastes of individual consumers or of
responding to market prices.
The other side of the same coin is the danger of inappropriate responses
to market forces in the presence of serious information imperfections.
Bridge (507–508) describes optimal conditions for a voucher system,
including well-informed consumers, frequent inexpensive purchases,
some excess supply capacity, and goods of which the quality can easily
be observed.
To these we can add rapid, sure feedback on the appropriateness of
purchases to permit consumers to learn from experience.
We have a close approximation to the optimal conditions for many
purchases that we actually make in the market, but few goods or
services are further from these optimal conditions than education.
The author remembers well visiting a parochial school in the United
States that encouraged parents to pay the tuition required to enrol their
children because it was academically superior to the public schools, so
the school claimed.
As plainly visible evidence of this superiority, the children used readers
that were one grade level more advanced than the grade that they were
in.
The author's observation was
that the children were at or below grade
level in reading achievement and were having considerable difficulty
with the reading program.
Responsiveness to market forces in the presence of serious information
imperfections resulted in parents paying extra money for education
inferior to that offered by public schools in the area.
Public schools have less temptation to mislead parents in this
way because they have less to lose if parents are
not pleased.
Not all provinces make provision for private schools.
Several do not even have a statutory definition of private schools but
treat them as efficient instruction elsewhere and rely on the ability of a
public authority to judge the efficiency of the instruction as the sole
means of regulating them.
Others have a formalized system of permits or licences, and still others
provide some public funding.
Five provinces currently provide public grants to private schools:
Quebec, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia.
These grants vary considerably in amount but are generally based on
enrolment and per pupil costs in the public sector.
Private schools receive some non-monetary benefits in all
provinces.
Those that are charitable organizations may be exempt from property
tax and, if registered with Revenue Canada, can issue receipts for
charitable donations.
Some provinces provide free or subsidized textbooks to private schools,
and some children attending private schools are transported by a local
public school board.
Provisions for private schools in Quebec, Alberta, and British Columbia
are examined in more detail below.
Quebec was an early entrant to private school funding, having passed
An Act Respecting Private Education
in 1968; and it had been providing some funding to private schools
before that on an ad hoc basis.
Private schools here are classified as preschool, elementary, secondary,
adult education, college, and supplementary vocational training.
All private schools, whether funded or not, are required to have a permit
(license) to operate issued by the Quebec Ministry of Education, Recreation
and Sports.
To receive grants, a private school, in addition to holding a permit,
must be accredited under the act for grant purposes
in accordance with specified criteria.
78. For the purpose of granting accreditation, the Minister shall take account of,
in particular,
-
1) the quality of the institution's educational organization and the
criteria governing the selection of the teaching and managerial personnel;
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2) the importance of the need expressed to which the institution proposes to respond;
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3) the extent of public support, and community involvement;
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4) the effects of accreditation on resources in the community;
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5) the specific contribution to be made by the institution in terms of enrichment,
complementarity or diversity;
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6) the level of participation of parents in the life of the institution;
-
7) the compatibility between the institution's objectives and the policies of the
Minister or the Government.
Each year the minister establishes budgetary rules to
determine the amount of subsidies to be paid.
Establishment of these rules involves comparisons with costs in the
public sector.
The funding of private schools in Alberta is provided for under section 28 of the
School Act
and its regulations.
Each private school must be registered with the minister of Education
as either an accredited or non-accredited school.
Stricter requirements are imposed on accredited schools including
official approval of teacher qualifications.
The following quotation (School Choice) provides details.
Parents may choose to educate their children outside the public education system,
within the private school system.
Private schools may charge tuition and other fees as required.
There are two kinds of private schools in the province.
Accredited private schools
- must follow the Alberta Program of Studies
- must employ certified teachers
- Students can earn credits towards an Alberta graduation diploma
- monitored by Alberta Education
- may receive provincial general revenue if operated by a non-profit society or corporation
- Accredited non-profit private schools receive the same funding for severe
special needs children as public schools
Registered private schools
- Do not have to offer the Alberta Program of Studies
- Do not have to employ certified teachers
- Students cannot earn credits towards an Alberta graduation diploma
- monitored by Alberta Education
- not funded by the Government of Alberta
The Minister of Education can and does provide funding to accredited schools
but is not permitted to fund unaccredited schools, referred to as registered
private schools in the above quotation.
In 1977 British Columbia began providing money to private schools,
there called independent schools.
The enabling act, now called the
Independent School Act,
provides for four types of schools designated as group one to group
four.
To operate in British Columbia, independent schools in all groups
must meet the following condition contained in section 1 of the schedule
to the act.
-
1. Before issuing or renewing a certificate of group 1, group 2,
group 3 or group 4 classification to an authority the
inspector must be satisfied that
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(a) no program is in existence or is proposed at the
independent school that would, in theory or in practice,
promote or foster doctrines of
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(i) racial or ethnic superiority or persecution,
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(ii) religious intolerance or persecution, or
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(iii) social change through violent action, or
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(iv) sedition,
The criteria used to place a school into one of the four groups include
proportion of teachers with teaching certificates, per pupil costs in
relation to public school per pupil costs, adequacy of the physical plant,
compliance with provincial curricular guidelines, and compliance with
provincial evaluation standards, among others.
The conditions imposed are the most exacting for the group one schools
and they receive the most money, about 50 percent of the per pupil
cost incurred in the public sector in the same area.
The two alternatives to public-sector schooling examined so far, home schooling and
private schools, are clearly situated in the private sector.
Charter schools are an attempt to gain some of the advantages of private-sector
schooling without leaving the public sector.
Charter schools operate in the public sector with full public funding but are
freed of some of the rules governing public-sector schools and school boards.
Eighty percent of American states have charter school legislation and, in some states,
charter schools have become very popular.
In Canada, only the province of Alberta has adopted charter school legislation and
the impact of charter schools there has been minimal.
Alberta passed charter school legislation in 1994 (Charter Schools Handbook, p. 1).
The charter itself constitutes an agreement between the school and the provincial
minister of learning and sets out the mission and objectives of the school.
It is this that distinguishes the charter schools from public and separate schools.
Currently Alberta has charter schools specializing in science, education of the
gifted, education of girls, education of aboriginal peoples, and the Suzuki method of
musically enhanced education, among others.
Charter schools in Alberta must be non-denominational and so cannot duplicate
the Christian schools, so widespread in the private sector.
The legislation prevents charter schools from explicitly selecting students
except on a first-come first-served basis, although the charter itself may
result in a form of selection.
Charter schools in Alberta, as elsewhere, are not permitted to charge tuition
although they can impose the same miscellaneous fees on students that the
public schools do.
Charter school teachers must possess an Alberta teaching certificate but are
not members of the Alberta Teachers' Association (Bosetti, p. 103).
The legislation permits a maximum of fifteen charter schools in Alberta,
a restriction that tends to minimize their impact (Charter Schools Handbook,
p. 3).
In Canada, about one school-aged child in 200 in receiving home schooling
and about one in 20 is being educated in a
private or independent school.
Home schooling and private schools exist in all provinces.
Only Alberta has charter schools and the number of children in them is
very small.
All three are controversial in their own right and, in addition,
the public funding of private schools is particularly contentious.
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To what extent should schools and school districts co-operate with home
schoolers?
Should school districts provide supplies, advice, money, or any or
all of these?
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One complaint that public school supporters frequently have about
private schools is that they can select their students to a much greater
extent than the public schools, which have a legal obligation to accept
all eligible students.
Should private schools that receive public funds be subject to controls
over student recruitment?
If so, what should the controls be?
Should private schools be allowed to select students on the basis of
ethnicity or religion?
Should the practice of a religion be permitted as a selection criterion?
What about criteria that explicitly or implicitly produce a racially
selected student body?
A school for urban Canadian Indians would be an example.
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Christian schools have sometimes been accused of being un-Canadian
because their courses of study, such as the Accelerated Christian
Education program, are often imported from the United States.
How serious is this?
Should the provinces do something about it?
If so, what?
-
The Commission on Private Schools in Ontario noted considerable
variability among private schools in that province (Shapiro, 8).
This is hardly surprising since each one specializes in satisfying a
subset of the public and can ignore the rest, whereas the public schools
must avoid strongly dissatisfying any segment of the public.
Is this variability a
strength or a weakness?
Some private schools are much poorer academically than public schools.
Should they be closed?
-
Should all private schools be required to employ only certificated
teachers?
Bergen (1986) found that a majority of his survey respondents in all
groups, including private school principals, felt that private school
teachers should have certificates.
Non-certificated teachers in private schools fall into recognizable
groups.
In many elite schools there are persons who are well qualified
academically but who have never taken teacher education.
Christian schools employ teachers who may not even have completed
high school but who have gone to a bible college and who may be
qualified as ministers of the gospel in some Christian denomination.
If non-certificated teachers are to be employed, should some standards
be imposed?
What standards?
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Although some private schools are unionized, most are not.
Some Christian denominations regard unions as immoral and refuse to
unionize for this reason.
Private school administrators regard the lack of unions as a blessing
that gives them greater flexibility over hiring, firing, the school day, the
school year, and job assignments generally.
How important is this advantage, or is it an advantage?
Do teacher unions pose a serious threat to the idea of public-sector
alternative schools or associated independent schools?
Do unions make it difficult for public schools to compete with private
ones?
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Should public schools in Canada be given more scope to respond to
market incentives?
Should they be allowed to provide extra courses for children and to
charge for them?
Should they be permitted to sponsor fee-for-service tutoring?
Should they be allowed to charge fees for an extended school day?
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An important administrative advantage for private schools is their
ability to make decisions at the school level which, in the public sector,
are made at the board or provincial level.
Is the public school system strangling in its own red tape?
Do bureaucratic restrictions on classroom teachers interfere with
teaching and learning?
What can and should be done about this?
The “Canadian Home Based Learning Resource Page” contains substantial
material relevant to home schooling in Canada.
It can be found at
http://www.flora.org/homeschool-ca/
.
The article by Luffman in a Statistics Canada periodical provides quantitative and
empirical information and a bibliography.
The Shapiro reference is the closest thing there is to a text on private
schools in Canada.
The Bergen and Bezeau articles are also useful.
If there is a model system for funding private schools in Canada, it is
the
Quebec one.
The Quebec legislation and regulations in official sources make
interesting reading.
General reference sources on the subject of private schools include
Everhart, James and Levin, and Levy.
Young provides a Canadian perspective.
The Charter Schools Handbook and the Bosetti article provide information
on the Alberta experience with charter schools.
“An Act Respecting Private Education” (Quebec).
(2007 07 01).
Audain, Tunya.
(1987 04).
“Home education: The third option”.
Canadian School Executive.
6,10: 18–21,24.
Barman, Jean.
(1984).
Growing Up British in British Columbia: Boys in Private Schools.
Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.
Bergen, John J.
(1982 12).
“The private school movement in Alberta”.
Alberta Journal of Educational Research.
28,4: 315–336.
Bergen, John J.
(1986 06).
“An examination of private school issues in Alberta”.
Alberta Journal of Educational Research.
32,2: 91–108.
Bergen, John J.
(1987 12).
“Government sponsored private school studies in Alberta and Ontario”.
Alberta Journal of Educational Research.
33,4: 292–306.
Bezeau, Lawrence M.
(1979).
“The public finance of private education in the
Province of Quebec”.
Canadian Journal of Education.
4,2: 23–42.
Bosetti, Lynn.
(2003?).
The Alberta Charter School Experience.
Bridge, Gary.
(1978 04).
“Information imperfections: The Achilles' heel of
entitlement plans”.
School Review.
86: 504–529.
Charter Schools Handbook.
(2002 12).
Edmonton: Alberta Learning.
Coons, John E. and Sugarman, Stephen D.
(1978).
Education by Choice: The Case for Family Control.
Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
Crew, Michael A. and Young, Alistair.
(1977).
Paying by Degrees.
London, England: Institute of Economic Affairs.
David, Guy.
(1975 10).
La situation de l'enseignement privé au
Québec.
Montreal: Centrale de l'enseignement du Québec.
Erickson, Donald A. and Nault, Richard L.
(1978 01).
Currency, Choice, and Commitment.
San Francisco: University of San Francisco Center for Research on
Private Education.
Everhart, Robert B. (ed).
(1982).
The Public School Monopoly.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Ballinger.
Gendreau, Benoît and Lemieux, André.
(1987).
Les Structures de l'Education au Québec.
Montréal: Agence d'Arc.
Gossage, Carolyn.
(1977).
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